mcguidj
13-07-2005, 03:28 AM
The rivalry and controversies between Sufism and its legalist and conservative detractors go back to the early epochs of Muslim history. The Sufi orders that emerged in the crisis milieu of the 12th century represented a quest for gnosis, the mystical search for truth, in contrast to the disciplined legalism and conservatism of the ulama.2 As the guardians of the Islamic tradition and ethic, the ulama were the legitimizers of power and authoritative interpreters of the law. In terms of Weberian theory, the "traditional" and "legal-rational" authority of the ulama was undermined by the free-flowing "charismatic" authority of the Sufi shaykh.3
Yet under certain historical conditions, there was considerable coincidence and coexistence between the Sufi shaykhs and the ulama.4 Furthermore, not all Sufi shaykhs and movements were quietest in the religious and political spheres. For example, the Sanusiyyah began as a Sufi movement, but in its third generation became militant in response to French and Italian imperialism.5 Nor should it be forgotten that some prominent leaders of political Islamist movements-Sudan's Mahdi, Hasan al-Banna, and Ruhollah Khomeini-began their careers as Sufis. Under the impact of the crisis conditions of their respective social milieux, these men were propelled into lives of political activism.6 In the case of Banna, his MuslimBrotherhood emerged as a mass movement in response to the social changes that brought about the decline of the Sufi orders in Egypt in the 19th and 20th centuries.7
The resurgence of Islamism after the 1967 war and its subsequent use by President Anwar al-Sadat of Egypt as an antidote to Nasserism brought the Muslim Brotherhood into prominence as a prelude to its emergence as a part of mainstream Islam.8 With the rise of the Brotherhood's militant offshoots, and its growing criticism of Sadat's policies of rapprochement with the West and Israel, the government sought to strengthen the Sufi movement, which by this time was presenting itself as an Islamically legitimate but politically quietist, tolerant, and spiritually vibrant alternative to political Islamism.9 This pattern of mutual accord between the state and Sufism has persisted under President Husni Mubarak.10 Similar policies of governmental support for Sufism have been discerned in Syria and Saudi Arabia.11
A dominant theme in the ideology and activities of contemporary Sunni Islamist movements is a deep-seated opposition to Sufism. Despite past instances of convergence and overlapping between Sufi and revivalist movements, their mutual antagonism has become pronounced particularly in the contemporary milieu of heightened political Islamism. The doctrinal roots of opposition to Sufism among today's Sunni Islamists are found in the writings of the eminent 13th-century Hanbali 'alim Taqi al-Din Ahmad ibn Taymiyya.12 In his quest to purify the Muslim faith, Ibn Taymiyya vigorously opposed Sufi pantheism and such practices as the worship of saints and pilgrimages to their shrines, although he accepted a Sufism based on Islamic legalism and tradition.13 In the hands of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, Ibn Taymiyya's strictures on Sufism were transformed into a comprehensive condemnation and prohibition of the Sufi orders.14 This critical stance toward Sufism and its practices can be found among the major exponents of modern Islamist thought, such as Abu al-A'la Mawdudi,15 Sayyid Qutb, 16 'Abd al-Salam Faraj, 17 and Fathi Yakan. 18 By anchoring themselves on the legalist tradition of Ibn Taymiyya, these modern-day Islamists rejected Sufi esoteric (batini) beliefs and ceremonial practices as being heretical innovations (bid'a) and superstitions (khurafa). 19 Instead of the Sufi's inner-directed mysticism, quietism, and withdrawal from the mundane, the Islamists advocate religious -political activism, where a person's piety can be outwardly demonstrated and socially validated in terms of the shari'a. Indeed, the ultimate quest of the Islamists is to capture the Islamic popular mainstream by imposing a single homogenizing ideology as a means to mobilize the masses as a prelude to achieving political control.
Yet under certain historical conditions, there was considerable coincidence and coexistence between the Sufi shaykhs and the ulama.4 Furthermore, not all Sufi shaykhs and movements were quietest in the religious and political spheres. For example, the Sanusiyyah began as a Sufi movement, but in its third generation became militant in response to French and Italian imperialism.5 Nor should it be forgotten that some prominent leaders of political Islamist movements-Sudan's Mahdi, Hasan al-Banna, and Ruhollah Khomeini-began their careers as Sufis. Under the impact of the crisis conditions of their respective social milieux, these men were propelled into lives of political activism.6 In the case of Banna, his MuslimBrotherhood emerged as a mass movement in response to the social changes that brought about the decline of the Sufi orders in Egypt in the 19th and 20th centuries.7
The resurgence of Islamism after the 1967 war and its subsequent use by President Anwar al-Sadat of Egypt as an antidote to Nasserism brought the Muslim Brotherhood into prominence as a prelude to its emergence as a part of mainstream Islam.8 With the rise of the Brotherhood's militant offshoots, and its growing criticism of Sadat's policies of rapprochement with the West and Israel, the government sought to strengthen the Sufi movement, which by this time was presenting itself as an Islamically legitimate but politically quietist, tolerant, and spiritually vibrant alternative to political Islamism.9 This pattern of mutual accord between the state and Sufism has persisted under President Husni Mubarak.10 Similar policies of governmental support for Sufism have been discerned in Syria and Saudi Arabia.11
A dominant theme in the ideology and activities of contemporary Sunni Islamist movements is a deep-seated opposition to Sufism. Despite past instances of convergence and overlapping between Sufi and revivalist movements, their mutual antagonism has become pronounced particularly in the contemporary milieu of heightened political Islamism. The doctrinal roots of opposition to Sufism among today's Sunni Islamists are found in the writings of the eminent 13th-century Hanbali 'alim Taqi al-Din Ahmad ibn Taymiyya.12 In his quest to purify the Muslim faith, Ibn Taymiyya vigorously opposed Sufi pantheism and such practices as the worship of saints and pilgrimages to their shrines, although he accepted a Sufism based on Islamic legalism and tradition.13 In the hands of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, Ibn Taymiyya's strictures on Sufism were transformed into a comprehensive condemnation and prohibition of the Sufi orders.14 This critical stance toward Sufism and its practices can be found among the major exponents of modern Islamist thought, such as Abu al-A'la Mawdudi,15 Sayyid Qutb, 16 'Abd al-Salam Faraj, 17 and Fathi Yakan. 18 By anchoring themselves on the legalist tradition of Ibn Taymiyya, these modern-day Islamists rejected Sufi esoteric (batini) beliefs and ceremonial practices as being heretical innovations (bid'a) and superstitions (khurafa). 19 Instead of the Sufi's inner-directed mysticism, quietism, and withdrawal from the mundane, the Islamists advocate religious -political activism, where a person's piety can be outwardly demonstrated and socially validated in terms of the shari'a. Indeed, the ultimate quest of the Islamists is to capture the Islamic popular mainstream by imposing a single homogenizing ideology as a means to mobilize the masses as a prelude to achieving political control.